“No question is so difficult to answer as that to which the answer is obvious” (George Bernard Shaw, 1856-1950).
Gender is a central part of human identity; the origins of which remain under investigation. As definitive answers have not been forthcoming, this is still a question of central importance. When debating gender development one must consider three main schools of thought; biological, sociological and psychological. It is largely agreed that all three factors play some part in determining gender and therefore one must instead debate which most successfully shapes gendered behaviours. However, many believe that as humans are biological beings biology may be the predominant factor affecting gendered behaviours.
The socio-biological theory suggests gender appropriate behaviour has evolved to allow humanity to survive. There is supporting evidence in the composition of the human body; men have a larger lung capacity and greater physical strength than women in order to better equip them for protecting their family. In contrast, women are born with child-bearing capacities and are therefore biologically predetermined to care for their children, thus ensuring the human race survives.
In 1994 Kenrick introduced “Parental Investment Theory”. He claimed society is organised so that women are protected and remain faithful, ensuring men are able to impart their genes to future generations. This also allows for women to be selective to ensure their partner provides food, shelter and other basic human necessities.
Kenrick’s ideas are supported by Buss’ 1994 experiment. Buss surveyed men and women in thirty seven countries to investigate important qualities in the opposite sex. The findings showed that women preferred resourcefulness and dependability whereas men valued chastity and youth. This study appears to support Kenrick’s “Parental Investment Theory” as Buss argues that men evolved to provide for their partners and are attracted to fertile women.
Oestrogen receptors in the brain are believed to cause gender-appropriate behaviour. Oestrogen, a hormone found in the female genital tissue, acts as a ligand and, by activating the oestrogen receptors found on the surfaces of brain cells, causes notable changes in behaviour. Professors at Yale University have studied the effects of oestrogen and found the hormone increases neural connectivity in the brain resulting in a more accurate memory. Turnham et al (2002) supports this as upon investigation it was discovered that women recalled 15% more information, therefore oestrogen in the brain affects human behaviour.
The size of the cerebral cortex in the brain is also evidence to suggest gender is biological. Harasty et al. (1997) stated “the volume of the superior temporal cortex”, or language centre, “expressed as a proportion of total cerebral volume was significantly larger in females”. The results of Harasty’s study showed the planum temporale, specifically connected with language, is 29.8% larger in females; therefore women have a higher capacity to commuunicate.
Some psychologists believe the origin of gender is cited in chromosomes, however, this heavily debated. By looking at cases of Turners syndrome, identifiable by the atypical chromosome XO, the impact of chromosomes on gendered behaviours becomes evident. Children demonstrate the higher verbal abiliity consistent with female brains (Harasty et al. 1997) but in contrast show a more developed visual memory and spatial ability associated with male brains.
Some psychologists believe the origin of gender is cited in chromosomes, however, this heavily debated. By looking at cases of Turners syndrome, identifiable by the atypical chromosome XO, the impact of chromosomes on gendered behaviours becomes evident. Children demonstrate the higher verbal abiliity consistent with female brains (Harasty et al. 1997) but in contrast show a more developed visual memory and spatial ability associated with male brains.
Overall the socio-biological explanation of gendered behaviour includes impressively detailed findings. One could argue Kenrick’s “Parental Investment Theory” to be a strong paradigm as it can be adapted across cultures but it cannot be used to provide a definitive explanation of the origin of gendered behaviours. The reliability of Buss’ supporting evidence is questionable as although the results are representative, the survey was designed by a western psychologist so may not recognise qualities valued in non-Western industrial cultures. Consequently one cannot assume cultural factors did not affect the preferences in qualities. Further research into oestrogen receptors in the brain appears to support the socio-biological theory; however, it remains unknown whether these receptors cause feminine behaviour or if acting in this manner causes the development of oestrogen receptors. Due to neural elasticity it is also difficult to establish cause and effect with regard to larger language centres in the female brain. It is possible to adapt to high demand on this section of the brain as girls associate communication as gender-appropriate. Cases of Turners’ syndrome that demonstrate the effect of chromosomes on gendered behaviours are atypical and therefore more difficult to generalise.
Consequently, the socio-biological explanation of gender leaves gaps in understanding but introduces many important ideas that suggest some biological basis for gendered behaviour.
Social learning theory presents all gender-appropriate behaviour as learnt and suggests parents and society enforce this learning. The idea parents treat children differently according to their sex, therefore teaching gender appropriate behaviours, is explored through Smith and Lloyd’s (1978) “Baby X” experiment. Smith and Lloyd observed the behaviour of thirty two mothers towards gender-neutral and sex-typed children. The experiment showed mothers encourage boys to be active and attempt to domesticate girls. Therefore psychologists argue gender is in part taught.
Social learning theory presents all gender-appropriate behaviour as learnt and suggests parents and society enforce this learning. The idea parents treat children differently according to their sex, therefore teaching gender appropriate behaviours, is explored through Smith and Lloyd’s (1978) “Baby X” experiment. Smith and Lloyd observed the behaviour of thirty two mothers towards gender-neutral and sex-typed children. The experiment showed mothers encourage boys to be active and attempt to domesticate girls. Therefore psychologists argue gender is in part taught.
The process through which children learn gender-appropriate behaviours is known as observational learning and reinforcement. A girl will observe her mother and imitate her behaviour; the parent proceeds to reinforce the behaviour by rewarding the child. If the girl acts in a way that is considered masculine, she receives a punishment, reinforcing this behaviour as inappropriate. Block (1979) found that girls are encouraged to be emotional and consequently display such characteristics.
However, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found children show no preference in observing the same sex parent, therefore this paradigm could be considered more difficult to prove; although this merely suggests the learning process to be deliberate.
Many psychologists argue society enforces gender stereotypes upon children; therefore the media effect debate has become part of the social learning paradigm. Trowler (1988) found 75% of adverts using actresses promoted cleaning products and 56% of women were shown in domestic roles. Gunter (1986) found that amount of television watched is directly proportionate to the strength of gender stereotypes displayed by the child. However, many psychologists argue this view to be over simplistic, ignoring the complexity of the brain.
Many psychologists argue society enforces gender stereotypes upon children; therefore the media effect debate has become part of the social learning paradigm. Trowler (1988) found 75% of adverts using actresses promoted cleaning products and 56% of women were shown in domestic roles. Gunter (1986) found that amount of television watched is directly proportionate to the strength of gender stereotypes displayed by the child. However, many psychologists argue this view to be over simplistic, ignoring the complexity of the brain.
Overall the social learning explanation of gender development appears plausible as social environment must play some role. However, the sample used in Smith and Lloyd (1978) was small, making the results are difficult to generalise. Furthermore the study lacked temporal validity and due to the lack of ecological validity the extent taught gender-appropriate behaviours were investigated is questionable. Consequently the results of this experiment are only partially reliable.
This theory ignores important biological evidence and is difficult to prove as definitive as there must be some biological basis. However, one could argue the social learning theory to be equally significant as important ideas are presented.
The biosocial theory considers social and biological aspects of gender and recognises the sex of the child is as important as outside influences.
Money and Ehrhart’s (1972) followed a three year old boy who, following penectomisation, was brought up as a girl until puberty when the male and female hormones began to compete. “Joan” underwent various sex change operations to become male as she had always maintained boys had better lives. Throughout childhood Joan had remained uncertain about her gender. After penis reconstruction surgery the subject married and attempted a normal life but committed suicide in 2004. Therefore although some gender-appropriate behaviours can be taught, the root cause lies within the biological make up of the individual.
As the biosocial theory recognises the strengths of both the socio-biological and social learning theories it could be seen as a strong explanation of gender development. However, as Joan’s case study is extremely atypical, findings are not representative of the population. Furthermore, extraneous variables could have affected Joan’s gendered behaviour such as the attitudes of her parents. Therefore the supporting evidence is severely flawed. The biosocial theory also recognises Smith and Lloyd’s experiment as supporting evidence of the impact of outside influences on gender. However, previously identified flaws apply so therefore Smith and Lloyd’s findings are difficult to generalise and arguably unreliable.
The biosocial theory may recognise that gendered behaviours have both a biological and social basis but the supporting evidence of this theory is flawed.
One may argue that biological and social factors are equally important. Plomin et al (1997) argued that children with aggressive genes provoke a similar response in others and this becomes part of the child’s environment. As the child matures this also reflects in their development. Scarr and McCartney (1983) argued that children seek activities that suit their genetic build; this is called niche-picking. However, Pascual-Leone et al (1995) argued that nature affects nurture using the concept of neural plasticity. The region of the brain controlling finger movements was found to grow when participants merely imagined the movement. Therefore it appears that although nature and nurture have an important part to play gender development, the predominant factor remains unclear.
One may argue that biological and social factors are equally important. Plomin et al (1997) argued that children with aggressive genes provoke a similar response in others and this becomes part of the child’s environment. As the child matures this also reflects in their development. Scarr and McCartney (1983) argued that children seek activities that suit their genetic build; this is called niche-picking. However, Pascual-Leone et al (1995) argued that nature affects nurture using the concept of neural plasticity. The region of the brain controlling finger movements was found to grow when participants merely imagined the movement. Therefore it appears that although nature and nurture have an important part to play gender development, the predominant factor remains unclear.
Freud argued that until the resolution of the Electra complex gender identity is assumed flexible by the child. Upon this resolution during the phallic stage of development the child acquires gender identity.
However, Krebs and Blackman (1988) argued that the acquisition of gender identity is a gradual process as suggested by the cognitive explanation. One could counter-argue that the resolution of the Electra complex is also a gradual process and the acquisition of gender identity would be equally so.
However, Krebs and Blackman (1988) argued that the acquisition of gender identity is a gradual process as suggested by the cognitive explanation. One could counter-argue that the resolution of the Electra complex is also a gradual process and the acquisition of gender identity would be equally so.
Golombok et al (1983) maintained that children born to same sex couples or single mothers are not adversely affected by an inability to resolve the Electra complex; their gender identity remains unaffected. This research is relevant to modern society as such situations are increasing making these results representative of the population; by 2005 an estimated 270,300 children in America had same-sex parents. Such statistics support that Golombok et al’s contradiction to Freud’s theory is a valid argument as such family situations are frequent.
O’Brien et al (1983) weaken Freud’s paradigm by stating children show signs of gender awareness before they reach the age at which the Electra complex is resolved.
Overall, the continued population of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory despite the lack of falsifiability indicates intuitive attraction.
Cognitive development theory argues that the process of gender development occurs over three stages; basic gender identity, at age three the child learns to recognise their own gender; gender stability, when four years old the child realises gender is permanent but have difficulty defining other’s gender; gender constancy, at age six the child understands all gender is immutable. Munroe et al (1984) claim the stages defined above have cross-cultural relevance, therefore strengthening this theory.
Cognitive development theory argues discovery of one’s own sex allows the child to identify with members of their own sex; although it is difficult to establish a causal relationship. Slaby and Frey (1975) studied children aged two and five to investigate gender constancy. The children were shown a split screen film of men and women. The amount of attention given to each side of the screen was recorded. The older children showed a marked same-sex bias, proving that identification with members of the same sex is an effect of gender constancy rather than a cause. However, measuring the visual attention given to each side of the screen could be inaccurate; therefore the results are debatably unreliable. Slaby and Frey’s investigation also strengthens the media effects theory expressed within the social learning paradigm.
In conclusion, practical limitations ensure it is near impossible to carry out a perfect experiment and consequently all evidence will be flawed. It is necessary to focus upon evaluating the severity of such flaws. One could argue that the biosocial theory is more convincing as the many strengths of the socio-biological and social learning theories are combined providing a credible explanation. This also means the scientific facts in the socio-biological theory are no longer undermined but indeed strengthened by evidence to support learnt gender-appropriate behaviours. The biosocial theory allows for both schools of thought to be equally considered. Overall the Hegelian dialectic mechanism can be applied; the hypothesis, in this case the socio-biological explanation, and the antithesis, the social learning paradigm, must co-exist to produce the resulting synthesis, gender-appropriate behaviours. Thus girls are both born and made.
References
Cardwell and Flanagan (2004) Psychology A2 the complete companion Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd
Gottlieb, S. (1999) Research clarifies role of oestrogen in brain activity associated with memory, British Medical Journal 318
Gross, R. (2005) Psychology, The science of mind and behaviour. London: Hodder Education
Billingham, M. et al (2008) AQA Psychology B AS: Student’s Book. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd
Billingham, M. et al (2008) AQA Psychology B AS: Student’s Book. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd
Harasty, J. et al (1997) University paper studying language associated cortical regions in female brain, Arch Neurol 54, 171-6
Pert, C. (1997) Molecules of Emotion London: Simon and Schuster UK Ltd
Websites:
http://en.wikipedia,org/wiki/CGBT-parenting statistics, 27th March 2009
www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-07-22-memory_x.htm opening quote, 27th March 2009
http://en.wikipedia,org/wiki/CGBT-parenting statistics, 27th March 2009
www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-07-22-memory_x.htm opening quote, 27th March 2009
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/hzi9401.html Trowler (1988) research, 12th May 2009
